What is photon?

Under the photon theory of light, a photon is a discrete bundle[or quantum] of  electomagnetic[or light]energy.Photons are always in motion and, in a vacuum,have a constant speed of light to all observers, at the  vacuum speed of light [more commonly just called the speed of light] of c = 2.998 x 10⁸ m/s.

Basic properties of photons
                          
                                According to the phiton theory of light,photons.

                                *move at a constant velocity,  c = 2.9979 x 10⁸ m/s
                                   (i.e. "the speed of light"), in free space
                                 *have zero mass and rest energy
                                 * carry energy and momentum, which are also related to the frequency nu and wavelength lamdba of the electromagnetic wave by E = h nu and p = h / lambda.
                                  *can be destroyed/created when radiation is absorbed/emitted.The term photon was coined by Gilbert Lewis in 1926, though the concept of light in the form of discrete particles had been around for centuries and had been formalized in Newton's construction of the science of optics.
In the 1800s, however, the wave properties of light (by which I mean electromagnetic radiation in general) became glaringly obvious and scientists had essentially thrown the particle theory of light out the window. It wasn't until Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect and realized that light energy had to be quantized that the particle theory returned.

Wave-Particle Duality in Brief

As mentioned above, light has properties of both a wave and a particle. This was an astounding discovery and is certainly outside the realm of how we normally perceive things. Billiard balls act as particles, while oceans act as waves. Photons act as both a wave and a particle all the time (even though it's common, but basically incorrect, to say that it's "sometimes a wave and sometimes a particle" depending upon which features are more obvious at a given time).
Just one of the effects of this wave-particle duality (or particle-wave duality) is that photons, though treated as particles, can be calculated to have frequency, wavelength, amplitude, and other properties inherent in wave mechanics.

Fun Photon Facts

The photon is an elementary particle, despite the fact that it has no mass. It cannot decay on its own, although the energy of the photon can transfer (or be created) upon interaction with other particles. Photons are electrically neutral and are one of the rare particles that are identical to their antiparticle, the antiphoton.
Photons are spin-1 particles (making them bosons), with a spin axis that is parallel to the direction of travel (either forward or backward, depending on whether it's a "left-hand" or "right-hand" photon). This feature is what allows for polarization of light.

Misconception About Albert Einstein:

The rumor began circulating even while Albert Einstein was alive that he had failed mathematics courses as a child.While it is true that Einstein began to talk late - at about age 4 according to his  own account s-he never failed in mathematics,nor did he do poor in shool in general.He did fairly well in mathematics courses throught his education and briefly considered becoming a mathematician.He recognised early on that fact his gift was not in pure mathematics ,a fact he lamented throughtout his career as he sought out more accomplished mathematicians to assist in the formal description of his theories.

Why Does E=mc2? (and Why Do We Care?) by Brian Cox & Jeff Forshaw

Da Capo Press

One of the most fundamental concepts in modern physics is that of spacetime, which defines the environment in which all of physics takes place. The concept is not necessarily straightforward, though, and in this book physicists Brian Cox & Jeff Forshaw clearly address the complexities of this concept, and the bearing that it has on the rest of physics. The real selling point of this book lies in the second part of the name. It really does address why people should care about E=mc² and how it has an impact on the rest of physics. Most books focus on the technical aspects, without really paying close attention to the underlying meaning of the concepts, and Cox & Forshaw keep that meaning prominently placed on center stage throughout the book

Biographical profile of Albert Einstein

In 1901,Albert Einstein receieved his diploma as a teacher of physics and mathematics. Unable to find a teachert position, he went to work for the swiss patent office. He obtained his doctoral degree in 1905, the same year he published four significant papers,introducing the concepts of special relativity and the photon theory of light

Albert  Einstein,s wok in 1905 shook the world of physics. In his explanation of the photoelectric effect he introduced the photon theory of light. In his paper"On the Electrodynamics of moving Bodies", he introduced the conceots of special relativity.

What is Relativity?

Classical relativity (defined initially by Galileo Galilei and refined by Sir Isaac Newton) involves a simple transformation between a moving object and an observer in another inertial frame of reference. If you are walking in a moving train, and someone stationary on the ground is watching, your speed relative to the observer will be the sum of your speed relative to the train and the train's speed relative to the observer. You're in one inertial frame of reference, the train itself (and anyone sitting still on it) are in another, and the observer is in still another.
The problem with this is that light was believed, in the majority of the 1800s, to propagate as a wave through a universal substance known as the ether, which would have counted as a separate frame of reference (similar to the train in the above example). The famed Michelson-Morley experiment, however, had failed to detect Earth's motion relative to the ether and no one could explain why. Something was wrong with the classical interpretation of relativity as it applied to light ... and so the field was ripe for a new interpretation when Einstein came along.

The nature and practice of science

Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be recognised into meaningful patterns.A primary aim of science is to collect facts[data].An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists facts.

Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge.It is the systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena.Science is about gaining a deeper and often useful understanding  of the world.
There is no unique human species called Homo scientificus. Scientists are not separate from the rest of humanity. Scientists are not a class of superior beings with super-human abilities to know the ancient past; they are just people. None is all-knowing.
Being people, scientists do not always objectively seek truth, wherever it might lead. All people hold biases toward particular viewpoints. ¹ Because scientists are human (subject to self-deception, pride, self-interest, etc.), there are those in both camps (Evolutionist and Creationist) who do not always practice good science. No person or institution is infallible or above all question.
Each person's particular set of biases is a result of personal life experiences, relationships, parents, schools, peers, teachers, personal practices, and the pressures of life. It is difficult for any person to deal objectively with evidence potentially destructive to one's own cherished beliefs or pride ² - or detrimental to perceived personal security, in whatever form.

"Scientists, contrary to the myth that they themselves publicly promulgate, are emotional human beings who carry a generous dose of subjectivity with them into the supposedly 'objective search for The Truth'. …The anonymous aphorism, 'I wouldn't have seen it if I hadn't believed it' is a continuing truth in science. And of course, it cuts two ways: you often see what you expect to see and not what you don't."

Nature of science themes

To support Achievement Aim 1 of the NoS strand, the Ministry of Education has identified key themes. These NoS themes can be used by teachers to enrich their understandings of the nature of science, and better integrate this strand with the contextual strands in science activities.
Select a NoS theme from the lists below for supporting concepts, teacher’s notes, questions to help build your understanding of the nature of science, and example science activities.

Exploring science ideas

• Scientists turn their science ideas into questions that can be investigated
• Scientists’ observations are influenced by their science ideas
• Scientists’ investigations are influenced by their communities
• Scientists’ predictions are based on their existing science knowledge
• Scientists design investigations to test their predictions
• Many different approaches and methods are used to build scientific investigations
• When scientists carry out investigations they aim to collect adequate data
• Scientists think critically about the results of their investigations

Invention is the easy but the start is difficult one.

As i said that invention is the easy one . yes it is absolutely easy one but from where should we start the program or the experiment to get the sucsses .Before we dont know the start, we cannot launch our experiment as we don"t start ourexpriment then we cannot meet our achievement and ultimetly our lose the the race of achievement.There are so many people who cannot achieve their aim or goal.For them i would liketo share my view winners don:t do different thing

Ideas vs. Inventions

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One of the major impediments to the success of independent inventors is a total lack of understanding of the difference between an idea and an invention
An idea is just a problem statement.  An invention is a solution to that problem.  Ideas aren't patentable -- only inventions are.
Assume, for example, that artificial Christmas trees didn't exist, and you've come up with the idea that an artificial Christmas tree might sell.  People wouldn't have to go shopping for a new tree each year, they wouldn't have to keep it watered, or clean up fallen needles, and they wouldn't have the problems of disposing of it.  And it would save trees, and relieve landfill clogging, etc., etc.
You feel this is a great idea, and you're afraid someone will steal it.  So you go rushing off to a patent attorney (if you're lucky enough to miss the ubiquitous "Inventions Wanted" ads).
However, the attorney will inform you that you can't patent the idea of an artificial Christmas tree.  You have to "reduce it to practice".  What (and all) you can patent is an implementation of one, i.e., a design and construction that you work out.
So you go back and play around with different designs (in real or on paper) and finally come up with something that looks and feels pretty good to you.  You rush back to the attorney, he does a patent search, and tells you it's "patentable".  You tell him to go ahead, he gets a patent application filed, and you breathe a sigh of relief.  Now you're "protected", and your fortune's made.
Friend -- you have a surprise coming!  It's almost certain you've blown the time and money you've invested.  You've let paranoia get in the way of common sense.  In your fear of someone "stealing" your idea (and thereby losing you your golden opportunity), you've taken actions (and adopted a mind set) that virtually guarantees your loss of that opportunity.  Yes, you've minimized some legal risk -- but at the cost of maximizing your business risk.  That's a bad trade-off.
A better approach?  Simply recognize the difference between an invention and an idea -- and quit trying to protect ideas.
In the case of your artificial Christmas tree, it's not your idea that may be saleable (or licensable) -- it's your implementation of that idea.  You need to come up with a "winning" design.  Unless you're extraordinarily skilled (or lucky), you need outside input to have any chance of doing so.
How do you find that input?  Simply get out and talk to potential customers about the idea -- and listen to what they have to say.
But won't people steal my idea and go develop their own?  Yes, there's a risk.  But there's also a risk you'll get killed driving to work tomorrow.  Let's look at that risk in the harsh light of reality.
First, most people won't share your enthusiasm for your idea -- even if it's a good one.  People mentally resist change -- they cling to the status quo.  The overwhelming majority of people exposed to your idea will reject it out-of-hand.  "It would ruin the spirit of Christmas", "I certainly wouldn't have one in my house", etc.  The fact is your problem is more likely to be finding anyone who'll take your idea seriously enough to offer the input you need.
Second, the few people who may pick up on it and think it's a good idea are too busy to develop it themselves.  There's a great deal of work required to go from an idea to a good design.  They have their own priorities they're working on.  Even if they think it's a promising idea, and want to be involved, why would they go charging off to do it themselves, or hire it done, when they have you chomping at the bit to do it for free?  To save a 5% royalty?  Get serious!

In the fieldof science

At the begining of the earth about 4 billion years ago there were no any scientist who had ever studied about the science.after so many years a few scientists came over among the people.What they had found it was quite unbelieveable things for them but they accept it.It was sir issac newton who got severe punishment by the people and he was also called as a mad only because he had told the truth that the earth revolves around the sun not the sun revolves around the earth.

Most Common Adult Brain Cancer Linked to Gene Deletion, Stanford Doctors Say

STANFORD, Calif. -- A study fast-tracked for online publication Dec. 22 in the New England Journal of Medicine has identified an important gene deletion in up to one of every four cases of glioblastoma, the most common adult brain cancer. This deletion contributes to tumor development, promotes resistance to therapy and considerably worsens a patient's survival prospects.

The deletion of the gene, known as NFKBIA, triggers biochemical processes similar to those resulting from a better-known aberration common in glioblastomas: alteration of the epidermal growth factor receptor, or EGFR. That both defects produce the same outcome may help explain why efforts to treat the disease by targeting only one aberration have faltered.
"Glioblastoma is the most malignant type of brain tumor," said Griffith Harsh, MD, professor of neurosurgery at the Stanford University School of Medicine and the study's senior author. Untreated, patients usually survive fewer than six months after diagnosis. After surgical excision, tumors often regrow rapidly. Radiation and temozolomide, a chemotherapeutic agent, can prolong survival, but not by much. These treatments extend median survival to perhaps 18 months.
Defects in NFKBIA, a gene normally present on chromosome 14, have been found in a wide range of cancers including Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, melanoma, and breast, lung and colon cancer. But the new study is the first to implicate the deletion of a copy of NFKBIA as a contributing cause of glioblastoma.
This discovery follows earlier findings that at least one-third of glioblastomas feature an abnormality of the gene coding for EGFR, the cell-surface receptor for the hormone known as epidermal growth factor. In such cases, EFGR is either present in excessive copies or is mutated in a manner that leaves the receptor stuck in the "on" position even when not stimulated by binding to the growth factor. Aberrant EGF receptors continuously send out biochemical signals that direct cells to proliferate, igniting tumor development.
"It's been known for 25 years that EGFR plays a role in glioblastoma as well as many other cancers, and that this gene is aberrantly activated in glioblastoma," said the study's principal investigator, Markus Bredel, MD, PhD, who is a visiting associate professor in Stanford's Department of Neurosurgery, associate professor at the University of Alabama-Birmingham and professor of neuro-oncology at the University of Freiburg in Germany. "We asked ourselves, what causes the majority of glioblastomas that don't have this defect?"
Bredel, Harsh and Branimir Sikic, MD, professor of oncology and clinical pharmacology at Stanford, had previously found that patients with low NFKBIA expression were resistant to temozolomide treatment. Based on that finding and on hints from other tumor types, Bredel, Harsh and their colleagues at Freiburg and Northwestern University (where most of the work was conducted under Bredel's direction) focused on NFKBIA.

How physics,chemistry and biology are inter-related?

Physics,chemistry and biology are inter-related.we use microscope to view the simple microbes which comes from the invention of physics.Again we use ultrasonography that also comes from physics which we use in the medical field.Now lets come to the chemistry we use different chemical for the manufactured of medicine that comes from the chemistry in medical field.In this we can say that all these terms are inter-related.

Synergy Between Biology And Physics Drives Cell-imaging Technology - ScienceDaily (June 5, 2008) — Developing techniques to image the complex biological systems found at the sub-cellular level has traditionally been hampered by divisions between the academic fields of biology and physics. However, a new interdisciplinary zeal has seen a number of exciting advances in super-resolution imaging technologies. See also: Plants & Animals Biology Developmental Biology Cell Biology Matter & Energy Medical Technology Optics Biochemistry Reference Confocal laser scanning microscopy Scanning tunneling microscope Biophysics Electron microscope In the June issue of Physics World, Paul O'Shea, a biophysicist at the University of Nottingham, Michael Somekh, an optical engineer at Nottingham's Institute of Biophysics, Imaging & Optical Science, and William Barnes, professor of photonics at the University of Exeter, outline these new techniques and explore why their development is an endeavour that requires the best efforts of both biologists and physicists. The tradi....
The New Newton: Unpublished Papers Reveal Lesser-known, But Significan.. - ScienceDaily (Sep. 18, 2006) — Known primarily for his foundational work in math and physics, Sir Isaac Newton actually spent more time on research in alchemy, as well as its interrelationships with science, history and religion, and its implications for economics. See also: Matter & Energy Physics Quantum Physics Thermodynamics Materials Science Engineering Chemistry Reference Newton's cradle Isaac Newton Gravitation Momentum Alchemy, as Newton practiced it in the 17th and 18th centuries, was research into the nature of chemical substances and processes – primarily the transmutation of materials from one type of matter to another. Newton and others conducted experiments, but also incorporated philosophical thought in their attempts to uncover the mysteries of the physical universe. 'Newton's extensive work on universal history (which presents human history as a coherent unit governed by certain immutable principles) provides an essential setting for linking his work on alchemy and....